Dr Chris McMillan
Research Fellow
School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences
+61 7 336 54629
Dr Chris McMillan is a virologist and vaccinologist whose work focuses on innovative vaccine platforms and advanced delivery technologies. His research spans several pathogens of global health importance, including seasonal and pandemic influenza, flaviviruses, poliovirus, SARS-CoV-2, and emerging viral threats. He works across multiple vaccine modalities, from recombinant proteins and virus-like particles to DNA, mRNA, and self-amplifying RNA platforms.
A major research focus is improving vaccine performance through targeted skin delivery using microarray patches (MAPs) to access immune-rich epidermal and dermal layers. By applying spatial transcriptomics and other tissue-scale profiling tools, we aim to map how MAP vaccines interact with the skin and draining lymph nodes in vivo to inform next-generation vaccine design.
He is also focusing on new RNA technologies, including self-amplifying RNA systems for both vaccine and therapeutic applications. This work integrates virology, RNA engineering, and spatial immunology to better understand and enhance immune responses at the tissue level.
Researcher biography
Dr Chris McMillan is a virologist and vaccinologist whose work focuses on innovative vaccine platforms and advanced delivery technologies. His research spans several pathogens of global health importance, including seasonal and pandemic influenza, flaviviruses, poliovirus, SARS-CoV-2, and emerging viral threats. He works across multiple vaccine modalities, from recombinant proteins and virus-like particles to DNA, mRNA, and self-amplifying RNA platforms.
A major research focus is improving vaccine performance through targeted skin delivery using microarray patches (MAPs) to access immune-rich epidermal and dermal layers. By applying spatial transcriptomics and other tissue-scale profiling tools, we aim to map how MAP vaccines interact with the skin and draining lymph nodes in vivo to inform next-generation vaccine design.
He is also focusing on new RNA technologies, including self-amplifying RNA systems for both vaccine and therapeutic applications. This work integrates virology, RNA engineering, and spatial immunology to better understand and enhance immune responses at the tissue level.
Journal Articles
Parry, Rhys H, McMillan, Christopher L D, Bruce, Kimberley L and Farrell, Helen E (2025). Global transcriptional reprogramming by cytomegalovirus infection suppresses MHC class II antigen presentation while enhancing migration machinery in murine dendritic cells. Microbial genomics, 11 (11). doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.001563
Choo, Jovin J. Y., Mcmillan, Christopher L. D., Scott, Connor A. P., Harrison, Jessica J., Watterson, Daniel, Hall, Roy A., Young, Paul R., Hobson-Peters, Jody and Muller, David A. (2025). Tetravalent microprojection-based dengue chimeric virus vaccine raises potent neutralising antibodies in mice. Npj Vaccines, 10 (1) 245. doi: 10.1038/s41541-025-01297-5
Entriken, Chloe G., Bruce, Kimberley L., Coyne, Bridget M., Kruyer, Saxon H., Sinclair, Jane E., Choo, Jovin J.Y., Muller, David A. and McMillan, Christopher L. D. (2025). Improved efficacy of an influenza DNA vaccine through high-density microarray patch delivery. Journal of General Virology, 106 (11) 002179. doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.002179
Parry, Rhys H., Shang, Yingjun, Sng, Julian D. J., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Modhiran, Naphak, Amarilla, Alberto A., Isaacs, Ariel, Liang, Benjamin, Muller, David A., Rawle, Daniel J., Suhrbier, Andreas, Anderson, Stevie, Kelly, Samuel, Watterson, Daniel, Burr, Lucy D. and Khromykh, Alexander A. (2025). Vaccine-induced and hybrid immunity against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in two cohorts in Queensland, Australia (2021-2022). Journal of Medical Virology, 97 (10) e70642, 1-15. doi: 10.1002/jmv.70642
Isaacs, Ariel, Nieto, Guillermo Valenzuela, Zhang, Xinghai, Modhiran, Naphak, Barr, Jennifer, Thakur, Nazia, Low, Yu Shang, Parry, Rhys H., Barnes, James B., Jara, Ronald, Himelreichs, Johanna, Yao, Yanfeng, Deride, Camila, Barthou-Gatica, Barbara, Salinas-Rebolledo, Constanza, Ehrenfeld, Pamela, Hen, Jun Jet, Hayes, Noah, Paramitha, Devina, Morgan, Mahali S., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Jones, Martina L., Munro, Trent P., Khromykh, Alexander A., Reading, Patrick C., Young, Paul R., Chappell, Keith J., Shi, Yi, Bailey, Dalan ... Watterson, Daniel (2025). A nanobody-based therapeutic targeting Nipah virus limits viral escape. Nature Structural and Molecular Biology, 32 (10), 1920-1931. doi: 10.1038/s41594-025-01598-2
Monson, Ebony A., Loterio, Robson K., Roby, Justin A., Adhikari, Anurag, Bull, Rowena A., Carr, Jill M., Chatzileontiadou, Demetra S. M., Cheng, Colin X., Coulibaly, Fasséli, Davis, Samantha K., Deerain, Joshua M., Douglas, Mark W., Drummer, Heidi E., Eyre, Nicholas S., Freppel, Wesley, Gowripalan, Anjali, Grant, Emma J., Gras, Stephanie, Guthmiller, Jenna J., Herrero, Lara J., Hesping, Eva, Horsburgh, Bethany A., Hyde, Jennifer L., Koutsakos, Marios, Mackenzie, Jason M., Mahar, Jackie E., McCoullough, Laura C., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Modhiran, Naphak ... Tate, Michelle D. (2025). Twelfth scientific biennial meeting of the Australasian Virology Society: AVS12 2024. Journal of Virology, 99 (5), e0225524. doi: 10.1128/jvi.02255-24
McMillan, Christopher L.D., Corner, Andrea V., Wijesundara, Danushka K., Choo, Jovin J.Y., Pittayakhajonwut, Daraporn, Poredi, Indrajeet, Parry, Rhys H., Bindra, Guneet K., Bruce, Kimberley, Khromykh, Alexander A., Fernando, Germain J.P., Dapremont, Laurent, Young, Paul R. and Muller, David A. (2025). Skin patch delivery of a SARS-CoV-2 Spike DNA vaccine produces broad neutralising antibody responses. Heliyon, 11 (4) e42533, e42533. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2025.e42533
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Wijesundara, Danushka K., Choo, Jovin J. Y., Amarilla, Alberto A., Modhiran, Naphak, Fernando, Germain J. P., Khromykh, Alexander A., Watterson, Daniel, Young, Paul R. and Muller, David A. (2024). Enhancement of cellular immunity following needle-free vaccination of mice with SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. Journal of General Virology, 105 (1) 001947, 1-6. doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.001947
Wijesundara, Danushka K., Yeow, Arthur, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Choo, Jovin J. Y., Todorovic, Aleksandra, Mekonnen, Zelalem A., Masavuli, Makutiro G., Young, Paul R., Gowans, Eric J., Grubor-Bauk, Branka and Muller, David A. (2023). Superior efficacy of a skin-applied microprojection device for delivering a novel Zika DNA vaccine. Molecular Therapy Nucleic Acids, 34 102056, 102056. doi: 10.1016/j.omtn.2023.102056
Tong, Marcus Z. W., Sng, Julian D. J., Carney, Meagan, Cooper, Lucy, Brown, Samuel, Lineburg, Katie E., Chew, Keng Yih, Collins, Neve, Ignacio, Kirsten, Airey, Megan, Burr, Lucy, Joyce, Briony A., Jayasinghe, Dhilshan, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Muller, David A., Adhikari, Anurag, Gallo, Linda A., Dorey, Emily S., Barrett, Helen L., Gras, Stephanie, Smith, Corey, Good‐Jacobson, Kim and Short, Kirsty R. (2023). Elevated BMI reduces the humoral response to SARS‐CoV‐2 infection. Clinical and Translational Immunology, 12 (12) e1476, 1-13. doi: 10.1002/cti2.1476
Choo, Jovin J. Y., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Young, Paul R. and Muller, David A. (2023). Microarray patches: scratching the surface of vaccine delivery. Expert Review of Vaccines, 22 (1), 937-955. doi: 10.1080/14760584.2023.2270598
Lumsden, Emma, Kimble, Roy, McMillan, Catherine, Storey, Kristen, Ware, Robert S. and Griffin, Bronwyn (2023). The feasibility of negative pressure wound therapy versus standard dressings in paediatric hand and foot burns protocol: a pilot, single-centre, randomised control trial. Pilot and Feasibility Studies, 9 (1) 90, 1-10. doi: 10.1186/s40814-023-01308-z
Albornoz, Eduardo A., Amarilla, Alberto A., Modhiran, Naphak, Parker, Sandra, Li, Xaria X., Wijesundara, Danushka K., Aguado, Julio, Zamora, Adriana Pliego, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Liang, Benjamin, Peng, Nias Y. G., Sng, Julian D. J., Saima, Fatema Tuj, Fung, Jenny N., Lee, John D., Paramitha, Devina, Parry, Rhys, Avumegah, Michael S., Isaacs, Ariel, Lo, Martin W., Miranda-Chacon, Zaray, Bradshaw, Daniella, Salinas-Rebolledo, Constanza, Rajapakse, Niwanthi W., Wolvetang, Ernst J., Munro, Trent P., Rojas-Fernandez, Alejandro, Young, Paul R., Stacey, Katryn J. ... Woodruff, Trent M. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 drives NLRP3 inflammasome activation in human microglia through spike protein. Molecular Psychiatry, 28 (7), 2878-2893. doi: 10.1038/s41380-022-01831-0
Morgan, Mahali S., Yan, Kexin, Le, Thuy T., Johnston, Ryan A., Amarilla, Alberto A., Muller, David A., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Modhiran, Naphak, Watterson, Daniel, Potter, James R., Sng, Julian D. J., Lor, Mary, Paramitha, Devina, Isaacs, Ariel, Khromykh, Alexander A., Hall, Roy A., Suhrbier, Andreas, Rawle, Daniel J. and Hobson-Peters, Jody (2022). Monoclonal antibodies specific for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein suitable for multiple applications for current variants of concern. Viruses, 15 (1) 139, 1-18. doi: 10.3390/v15010139
Young, Andrew, Isaacs, Ariel, Scott, Connor A. P., Modhiran, Naphak, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Cheung, Stacey T. M., Barr, Jennifer, Marsh, Glenn, Thakur, Nazia, Bailey, Dalan, Li, Kenneth S. M., Luk, Hayes K. H., Kok, Kin-Hang, Lau, Susanna K. P., Woo, Patrick C. Y., Furuyama, Wakako, Marzi, Andrea, Young, Paul R., Chappell, Keith J. and Watterson, Daniel (2022). A platform technology for generating subunit vaccines against diverse viral pathogens. Frontiers in Immunology, 13 963023, 1-16. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.963023
McMillan, Christopher L.D., Amarilla, Alberto A., Modhiran, Naphak, Choo, Jovin J.Y., Azuar, Armira, Honeyman, Kate E., Khromykh, Alexander A., Young, Paul R., Watterson, Daniel and Muller, David A. (2022). Skin-patch delivered subunit vaccine induces broadly neutralising antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Vaccine, 40 (34), 4929-4932. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.07.013
Isaacs, Ariel, Amarilla, Alberto A., Aguado, Julio, Modhiran, Naphak, Albornoz, Eduardo A., Baradar, Alireza A., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Choo, Jovin J. Y., Idris, Adi, Supramaniam, Aroon, McMillan, Nigel A. J., Muller, David A., Young, Paul R., Woodruff, Trent M., Wolvetang, Ernst J., Chappell, Keith J. and Watterson, Daniel (2022). Nucleocapsid specific diagnostics for the detection of divergent SARS-CoV-2 variants. Frontiers in Immunology, 13 926262, 926262. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.926262
Oliveira, Camille F. de, Neto, Walter F. F., Silva, Carla P. da, Ribeiro, Ana Claudia S., Martins, Lívia C., Sousa, Alana W. de, Freitas, Maria N. O., Chiang, Jannifer O., Silva, Franko A., Santos, Eder B. dos, Medeiros, Daniele B. A., Pinheiro, Gleiciane S., Brandão, Gleiciane F., Carvalho, Valéria L., Azevedo, Raimunda S. S., Vasconcelos, Pedro F. C., Costa, Igor B., Costa, Iran B., Santos, Mirleide C. dos, Soares, Luana S., Bedran, Rayssa L. S., Ferreira, James L., Amarilla, Alberto A., Modhiran, Naphak, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Freney, Morgan E., Muller, David A., Watterson, Daniel, Casseb, Lívia M. N. and Henriques, Daniele F. (2022). Absence of anti-RBD antibodies in SARS-CoV-2 infected or naive individuals prior to vaccination with CoronaVac leads to short protection of only four months duration. Vaccines, 10 (5) 690, 690. doi: 10.3390/vaccines10050690
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Azuar, Armira, Choo, Jovin J. Y., Modhiran, Naphak, Amarilla, Alberto A., Isaacs, Ariel, Honeyman, Kate E., Cheung, Stacey T. M., Liang, Benjamin, Wurm, Maria J., Pino, Paco, Kint, Joeri, Fernando, Germain J. P., Landsberg, Michael J., Khromykh, Alexander A., Hobson-Peters, Jody, Watterson, Daniel, Young, Paul R. and Muller, David A. (2022). Dermal delivery of a SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccine induces immunogenicity against variants of concern. Vaccines, 10 (4) 578, 578. doi: 10.3390/vaccines10040578
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Cheung, Stacey T. M., Modhiran, Naphak, Barnes, James, Amarilla, Alberto A., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, Helle, Lee, Leo Yi Yang, Guilfoyle, Kate, van Amerongen, Geert, Stittelaar, Koert, Jakob, Virginie, Lebas, Celia, Reading, Patrick, Short, Kirsty R., Young, Paul R., Watterson, Daniel and Chappell, Keith J. (2022). Author Correction: Development of molecular clamp stabilized hemagglutinin vaccines for Influenza A viruses. npj Vaccines, 7 (1) 3, 3. doi: 10.1038/s41541-021-00428-y
Choo, Jovin J. Y., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Fernando, Germain J. P., Hall, Roy A., Young, Paul R., Hobson-Peters, Jody and Muller, David A. (2021). Developing a stabilizing formulation of a live chimeric dengue virus vaccine dry coated on a high-density microarray patch. Vaccines, 9 (11) 1301, 1301. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9111301
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Cheung, Stacey T. M., Modhiran, Naphak, Barnes, James, Amarilla, Alberto A., Bielefeldt-Ohmann, Helle, Lee, Leo Yi Yang, Guilfoyle, Kate, van Amerongen, Geert, Stittelaar, Koert, Jakob, Virginie, Lebas, Celia, Reading, Patrick, Short, Kirsty R., Young, Paul R., Watterson, Daniel and Chappell, Keith J. (2021). Development of molecular clamp stabilized hemagglutinin vaccines for Influenza A viruses. npj Vaccines, 6 (1) 135, 135. doi: 10.1038/s41541-021-00395-4
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Choo, Jovin J. Y., Idris, Adi, Supramaniam, Aroon, Modhiran, Naphak, Amarilla, Alberto A., Isaacs, Ariel, Cheung, Stacey T. M., Liang, Benjamin, Bielefeldt-Ohmann, Helle, Azuar, Armira, Acharya, Dhruba, Kelly, Gabrielle, Fernando, Germain J. P., Landsberg, Michael J., Khromykh, Alexander A., Watterson, Daniel, Young, Paul R., McMillan, Nigel A. J. and Muller, David A. (2021). Complete protection by a single-dose skin patch–delivered SARS-CoV-2 spike vaccine. Science Advances, 7 (44) eabj8065, eabj8065. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abj8065
Amarilla, Alberto A., Sng, Julian D. J., Parry, Rhys, Deerain, Joshua M., Potter, James R., Setoh, Yin Xiang, Rawle, Daniel J., Le, Thuy T., Modhiran, Naphak, Wang, Xiaohui, Peng, Nias Y. G., Torres, Francisco J., Pyke, Alyssa, Harrison, Jessica J., Freney, Morgan E., Liang, Benjamin, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Cheung, Stacey T. M., Guevara, Darwin J Da Costa, Hardy, Joshua M., Bettington, Mark, Muller, David A., Coulibaly, Fasséli, Moore, Frederick, Hall, Roy A., Young, Paul R., Mackenzie, Jason M., Hobson-Peters, Jody, Suhrbier, Andreas ... Khromykh, Alexander A. (2021). A versatile reverse genetics platform for SARS-CoV-2 and other positive-strand RNA viruses. Nature Communications, 12 (1) 3431, 3431. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-23779-5
Choo, Jovin J. Y., Vet, Laura J., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Harrison, Jessica J., Scott, Connor A. P., Depelsenaire, Alexandra C. I., Fernando, Germain J. P., Watterson, Daniel, Hall, Roy A., Young, Paul R., Hobson-Peters, Jody and Muller, David A. (2021). A chimeric dengue virus vaccine candidate delivered by high density microarray patches protects against infection in mice. npj Vaccines, 6 (1) 66, 66. doi: 10.1038/s41541-021-00328-1
Watterson, Daniel, Wijesundara, Danushka K., Modhiran, Naphak, Mordant, Francesca L., Li, Zheyi, Avumegah, Michael S., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Lackenby, Julia, Guilfoyle, Kate, van Amerongen, Geert, Stittelaar, Koert, Cheung, Stacey T. M., Bibby, Summa, Daleris, Mallory, Hoger, Kym, Gillard, Marianne, Radunz, Eve, Jones, Martina L., Hughes, Karen, Hughes, Ben, Goh, Justin, Edwards, David, Scoble, Judith, Pearce, Lesley, Kowalczyk, Lukasz, Phan, Tram, La, Mylinh, Lu, Louis, Pham, Tam ... Chappell, Keith J. (2021). Preclinical development of a molecular clamp-stabilised subunit vaccine for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Clinical & Translational Immunology, 10 (4) e1269, e1269. doi: 10.1002/cti2.1269
Amarilla, Alberto A., Modhiran, Naphak, Setoh, Yin Xiang, Peng, Nias Y. G., Sng, Julian D. J., Liang, Benjamin, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Freney, Morgan E, Cheung, Stacey T. M., Chappell, Keith J., Khromykh, Alexander A., Young, Paul R. and Watterson, Daniel (2021). An optimized high-throughput immuno-plaque assay for SARS-CoV-2. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12 625136, 625136. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.625136
Isaacs, Ariel, Li, Zheyi, Cheung, Stacey T. M., Wijesundara, Danushka K., McMillan, Christopher L. D., Modhiran, Naphak, Young, Paul R., Ranasinghe, Charani, Watterson, Daniel and Chappell, Keith J. (2021). Adjuvant selection for influenza and RSV prefusion subunit vaccines. Vaccines, 9 (2) 71, 1-14. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9020071
Idris, Adi, Davis, Alicia, Supramaniam, Aroon, Acharya, Dhruba, Kelly, Gabrielle, Tayyar, Yaman, West, Nic, Zhang, Ping, McMillan, Christopher L.D., Soemardy, Citradewi, Ray, Roslyn, O'Meally, Denis, Scott, Tristan A., McMillan, Nigel A.J. and Morris, Kevin V. (2021). A SARS-CoV-2 targeted siRNA-nanoparticle therapy for COVID-19. Molecular Therapy, 29 (7), 2219-2226. doi: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.05.004
McMillan, Christopher L. D., Young, Paul R., Watterson, Daniel and Chappell, Keith J. (2021). The next generation of influenza vaccines: towards a universal solution. Vaccines, 9 (1) 26, 1-20. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9010026
Xi, Cecy R., Di Fazio, Arianna, Nadvi, Naveed Ahmed, Patel, Karishma, Xiang, Michelle Sui Wen, Zhang, Hui Emma, Deshpande, Chandrika, Low, Jason K K, Wang, Xiaonan Trixie, Chen, Yiqian, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Isaacs, Ariel, Osborne, Brenna, Vieira de Ribeiro, Ana Júlia, McCaughan, Geoffrey W., Mackay, Joel P., Church, W Bret and Gorrell, Mark D. (2020). A novel purification procedure for active recombinant human DPP4 and the inability of DPP4 to bind SARS-CoV-2. Molecules , 25 (22) 5392, 1-16. doi: 10.3390/molecules25225392
Tan, Yuen P., Xue, Yongbo, Savchenko, Andrei I., Houston, Sevan D., Modhiran, Naphak, McMillan, Christopher L. D., Boyle, Glen M., Bernhardt, Paul V., Young, Paul R., Watterson, Daniel and Williams, Craig M. (2019). Basimarols A, B, and C, Highly Oxygenated Pimarane Diterpenoids from Basilicum polystachyon. Journal of Natural Products, 82 (10) acs.jnatprod.9b00522, 2828-2834. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00522
Thesis
McMillan, Christopher (2019). Rational design of a recombinant subunit influenza vaccine. PhD Thesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland. doi: 10.14264/uql.2019.923